International Relations as Pedagogy:
Contending Visions of the World as Drawn by Undergraduates



Copyright, 1995 Seth A. Tucker
All Rights Reserved



Abstract

In a world swept up in the increasing pace of change, the complexity and confusion of world events only increases. Post-structuralist theorists in international relations argue that a characteristic of this new complexity is the rise of multiple and often conflictual world views or "narratives" with which individuals must try to understand the world. Accepting this supposition, this paper attempts to offer one method with which teachers of international relations might provide analytic tools to their students designed to assist them in understanding and critically evaluating the multiple "narratives" which today's world has forced upon them.







These marginal sites are no doubt very different...In none of these sites is there a unique and ultimate sovereign identity - be it the identity of the individual or the institutional structures of a social whole or community - to which one can appeal in fixing meanings and interpreting conduct.

Richard Ashley and R.B.J. Walker
"Speaking the Language of Exile: Dissident Thought in International Relations"

1. Introduction

More than ever, global relations are in a state of flux. The collapse of the Soviet Union, the fragmentation of Yugoslavia, the increasingly powerful presence of large trading blocs, the end of the Cold War, and a continuing shift in national boundaries all signal greater complexities and confusion in international relationships today. "Dissident" theorists in international relations argue that contending world views characterize this new complexity in world politics (Ashley and Walker, 1990; Ashley and George, 1989; George and Campbell, 1989).

No longer can one see the world from a sole perspective, or understand it within a single narrative. There are numerous examples: the working mother who must operate from both the world of work and that of family, the international businessman who must operate within a variety of different cultural narratives to do his/her job, the statesmen who must increasingly learn to accept "global community" narratives while secretly longing for the glory days of total hegemony, and the casual American who finds that narratives of US supremacy no longer seem to hold the answer to world dilemmas.

If Ashley and George are to be believed, we now exist within a variety of differing world views and make use of often conflicting narratives in our attempts to understand world events. The results of such clashes are often confusion and misunderstanding. This paper concerns itself with a pedagogical dilemma suggested by their work. Assuming that Ashley and George are correct that individuals increasingly face multiple and contending narratives of truth and meaning, how do we assist students to both realize the existence of these narratives and more importantly learn to critically evaluate them?

A teacher of international relations needs to convey this complexity to undergraduates who still, generally, view the world in traditional terms. They tend to perpetuate, unreflectively, the realist and liberal dogmas absorbed prior to coming to the university. This leaves them without important analytic skills necessary to grapple with the contemporary world. As the obvious divisions between narratives fade, traditional dichotomies like "west vs. east," "domestic vs. international," "north vs. south," "self vs. other," and "theory vs. practice" no longer apply as easily as before.

Recent approaches in post-structuralist international relations suggest a relevant theoretical alternative. Ashley and Walker (1990) argue for inclusion of "dissident" voices in international relations theory. They represent not only multiple identities and understandings of today's political economy but also how individuals now derive their self-identities from these multiple sources. If we are to address such issues in today's world, we need to teach our students accordingly. To do so, we can follow Ashley et al.'s admonition and search for teaching methodologies that allow for consideration of multiple identities.

This paper presents a pedagogical tool designed to help students realize their own position and role in global relations and to expose the conflicting narratives which the contemporary world has forced upon them. Students are asked to make drawings of what they construe to represent "the world." They must draw their pictures within a limited period of time and with no prior thought. The drawings are then analyzed for similarities and differences in narrative. The drawings serve as an heuristic for provoking thought about their cultural assumptions and how these assumptions might affect the analysis of issues in international relations. I add strategies for the follow-up discussion in order to underscore points made by the drawings. Most notable of these is an analysis of textual material from contemporary politicians. The students are encouraged to examine the words of presidents and statesmen with a hopefully more contextualized understanding of culturally contingent terms like "freedom," "liberty," and "democracy."

This paper begins by showing the recent efforts of post-structuralist/post-positivist international relations theorists to theorize the position of the marginalized in today's society. Recent analyses argue that the voice of the marginalized is becoming increasingly familiar as the lines between narratives begin to fade. This contention leads to a pedagogical dilemma that deserves exploration as we seek better ways to assist students to develop effective tools for analysis in an increasingly complex world. Consequently, I offer a pedagogical tool that offers one method for exploring the narratives used to understand global relations today, and I show how this method can effectively be used to examine the individual narratives of students and those common in today's political debates. Finally, I submit some findings from the application of this method conducted with undergraduates over a two year period and offer suggestions for future revision.

2. Post-Structuralist Roots


Post-structuralism as presently practiced in international relations owes a heavy debt to the work of the French theorists who first sought to explore marginalized discourses. To be sure, international relations has adopted an individually tailored version of the French original for its use, but I would be remiss in not outlining in brief the debt owed to Michel Foucault in particular. Among the Post-structuralists, Foucault's concern for local, political emancipation of discourse makes his work of particular import for this paper.

The subjugation of marginalized knowledge is the central theme throughout Foucault's work. He argues that the hegemonic power of government, science, and society combine to silence that which is different. Speaking of his own genealogical method Foucault claims:


We are concerned with the insurrection of knowledges that are opposed primarily not to the contents, methods or concepts of a science, but to the effects of the centralising powers which are linked to the institution and functioning of an organised scientific discourse within a society such as ours. (Foucault, 1977a, p. 84)


Although speaking specifically of scientific discourses here, Foucault suggests that power and knowledge are inextricably related regardless of the site from which the power is exercised.

Given this hegemonic relationship, Foucault's genealogical method intends to expose the links between knowledge and power at local sites (Foucault, 1977b). Thus exposed, Foucault's method seeks to give voice to those marginalized discourses; voices that had previously gone unheard. Foucault felt deeply that the goal of his work was political. He did not seek to develop grand theory but rather sought to examine the effects of power at local sites arguing that the emancipation of those without a voice was his purpose (Foucault, 1978). Linked with his interest in power and knowledge was the contention that the primary site for the activities of these two forces was discourse. Text was the playing field of knowledge and power, and it was through text that an understanding of knowledge was to be gained.

2.1 Post-Structuralism in International Relations

The gradual decline of behavioralism as the sole paradigm of import within international relations led to a complex struggle within the discipline for paradigmatic supremacy (Lapid, 1989a; Alker and Biersteker, 1984). The results of this struggle are not yet clear. Yet, an interesting result of the decline of behavioralism has been the rise of alternative approaches to international relations. Yosef Lapid (1989a;1989b) has identified the rise of these alternative approaches as signalling the beginnings of a post-positivist era in international relations. The roots of these new approaches are in part post-structuralist, and the controversy over their usefulness to international relations has been called the "third debate." (Lapid, 1989a; Lapid 1989b; Banks, 1986; Biersteker, 1989)

Echoing the words of Foucault, researchers seeking a new approach to international relations theory argue the importance of the marginalized voice, textual data, and forms of power beyond coercion. (Ashley, 1990a; Ashley, 1989; Der Derian, 1989; Shapiro, 1989) At the forefront of this effort is the work of Richard Ashley, R.B.J. Walker, Jim George and others who, closely mirroring Foucault's goals, seek to promote the marginalized voices in areas of concern to international relations. (Ashley and Walker, 1990a; Ashley and Walker, 1990b; George and Campbell, 1990)

While the work of George and Campbell (1990) and others (see Lapid, 1989a; 1989b) seeks to explore the marginalized or "dissident" voices within the discipline of international relations, Richard Ashley and R.B.J. Walker (1990a;1990b) go a step further to suggest that these silent voices must not only be heard within paradigmatic debates but also given credence when spoken by the subjects of research. Ashley and Walker argue that a central theme of late twentieth century life is the fading of distinctions between political "narratives" used to understand the world. In some sense, Ashley and Walker contend, we are all beginning to share part of the marginalized voice. Whether we are mothers who must exist in the often conflictual worlds of work and home simultaneously or an American statesman who must now juggle the narratives of both "world leader" and "global community," the change has begun.

The significance of this research pedagogically is the dilemma it presents to teachers of international relations. If we accept Ashley and Walker's suppositions then a new approach must be found to sensitize students to the existence of multiple narratives and the role they play in student's lives. If we extend Ashley and Walker's conclusions to matters pedagogical then the realist and liberal assumptions of the world instilled by American culture no longer apply to world events as easily as before. New tools must therefore be provided to students to assist them in critically analyzing the multiplicity of world narratives now available to them.

3. Seeking Difference: A Pedagogical Tool


The method presented below attempts to address Ashley and George's concerns from a pedagogical perspective. The method attempts to demonstrate, in an easily comprehendible graphic format, that people operate in multiple worlds and that this multiplicity affects the study of international relations.

What follows is a detailed description of the method itself along with the accompanying instructions given to students when the method is implemented. It should be noted that the instructions given to the students are still being experimented with to produce the least amount of instructor-generated bias in the drawings. I doubt not that many will disagree with the instructions I chose to give, and I encourage further experimentation along these lines. Moreover, I believe this method has potential for other disciplines and subjects, and I hope that further experimentation will follow. As of this writing, it has been suggested that recent advances in the field of art therapy might be beneficial to improving the method, but I leave that to a latter draft.

3.1 The method


The ideal class size is no more than around twenty-five. I have tried the method with larger groups and found that for simple logistic reasons I was forced to use a sub-group of around twenty-five. A class that is culturally diverse is also beneficial. The differences between drawings by students from dissimilar cultures is far more striking and generally is more successful at making the point. Moreover, if an instructor does not have a culturally diverse class, I have found it more beneficial to discuss the similarities among the drawings produced than emphasize the differences.

After distributing the materials, I instruct the class to produce a drawing in under two minutes that best represents their view of the world. Invariably, someone asks for clarification which should be met with silence. It is important to see the results produced with the least amount of interference from the instructor. Toward this end, the ambiguity of the instructions allow for more creativity. In the past, I have offered the suggestion that they might draw maps, circular representations, or more free-form drawings, but I have found that this addition tends to skew the results toward one of the given options. The time allotted to the students is also critical for receiving the best results. I have found that the less time given to the students the less planned are the drawings. After some experimentation, I have determined that roughly two minutes is the best time frame. On occasion, I have caught students looking at their neighbor's drawing in search of the "right" answer. In order to avoid this problem, I have begun instructing them not to do so, and I remind them that the project is not going to be graded nor is there a "right" answer.

After the two minute time period has elapsed I collect the drawings and display them at the front of the class. Each student is then asked to present his or her drawing and discuss the reasons behind representing the world as they have chosen. While a more detailed discussion of the results of the exercise is included below, the results to date have exceeded expectations.

3.2 The Discussion


Following the presentation of the drawings, I conduct a discussion on Ashley and George's term "narrative" comparing it to similar terms like "world view," "schema," "ontology," and "Weltanschauung." After introducing these terms to the class we examine the drawings again searching for the possible narratives that their work might reveal. The discussion is conducted in four parts; the anatomy of each segment is discussed below.

First, I have found that the class becomes quite involved with discussing the differing perspectives revealed by the drawings. The net result of which has been the initiation of dialogues between students about the ways in which they view the world. Students begin to see the "narratives" embedded in their drawings. Ideally, they should begin to see the assumptions inherent in their drawings by the conclusion of the discussion.

Second, using the drawings as a point of departure, I suggest that political leaders make use of the same narratives embedded in the student's own drawings. I initiate a debate over interpretations of various words used frequently in today's political debates. As of this writing, I have included discussions on "freedom," "justice," and "truth." While the discussion inevitably moves onto philosophical ground, I have found it most effective to focus the students attention on their own understandings of these words rather than on those of various philosophers.

Third, I have the students read a few samples of political texts taken from the media. As example, President George Bush's speech to the nation prior to the invasion of Iraq is quite a good source. Words like "freedom" and "liberty" are ever present. I challenge the students to consider the president's words not as "truth" but as representative of a narrative. I ask them then to suggest if events might be interpreted differently if understood through a different narrative. The discussion generated by the data has been successful in challenging the way students think about such speeches. The revelation that George Bush, and other leaders of course, utilizes a narrative affected by personal experience and society as a whole has thus far created among these students a healthy sense of skepticism about information they receive.(1) The final stage in the post-drawing discussion is to suggest to students that if individuals indeed make use of narratives when attempting to understand the world then there is value in the efforts of scientists to build explanatory theory. I offer that, in essence, the narratives we use to understand the world are themselves theories. Placed in this context, students seem to be far less hostile toward theory as the occupation of ivory tower researchers. The personal use of narratives described as theoretical constructs serves to make the connection for them between theory and practice.

3.3 The Sample


Over the last two years the exercise has been conducted approximately a dozen times by myself and a few interested colleagues. During this period, I have collected roughly 200 drawings rendered primarily by first-year undergraduates taking an introductory course in international relations. Sixty percent of respondents were male, and 80% grew up in the United States. Of the international respondents, the largest group was of Asian descent totaling 15%. Of the group that categorized themselves as American 18% described themselves as African-American, and another 8% designated themselves as Asian-American.

3.4 Results


My hope for the method was to elicit candid responses from the students on an intentionally vague and broad topic that held political ramifications. The results in most cases have exceeded my expectations. Beyond the success of the drawing exercise itself, I have found that students generally tend to enjoy a more pro-active classroom method, like the drawings, to simple lecture. They tend to learn better if they become more interested in the learning process.

I have taught classes using the method approximately a dozen times thus far, and the actual drawings created have demonstrated interesting patterns of similarity and difference that have successfully illustrated to the students the existence of differing narratives. What follows is a brief description of some of the patterns revealed to date.

For American students, the results are intriguing but, I argue, not at all surprising. The predominant illustration was that of a map with the United States located in the center. Different students would exhibit different patterns with regards to the rest of the world. Frequently, Canada was included as a part of the United States, and Central America was often excluded altogether. Europe usually was portrayed with prominence, as was Japan, but in at least half of the drawings created by white American males Africa was not included. The figure for white American females was somewhat lower at approximately 37%. Specific cases of interest include "Steve(2)," a white American seeking a degree in business management. Steve's drawing consisted of three large circles labeled "Europe," "Asia," and "North America." North America was placed in the center and was larger than the other two spheres. When asked to explain the drawing Steve related his interest in business and his opinion that these places were of principal importance. I would mention here that drawings similar to Steve's were by far in the majority. Subsequent drawings will focus on more descriptive cases, but I would not want to give the impression that these were in the majority.

"Todd," a white male pursuing a degree in environmental science, drew a picture of large rows of skyscrapers. When asked to explain his creation, Todd stated that as a forestry student he was concerned about the growth of urban centers and the destruction of natural resources. "Melissa," a student in international relations from the United States rendered a map that contained the United States, Canada, South America, and Australia. When asked to explain her exclusion of other land masses, she stated that she ran out of time, and these were the "first ones that had come into her mind."

Alternatively, "Nancy," an American student in international relations, drew a globe that included South America and Africa prominently. The United States and Europe, as well as Asia and Australia, were not included. However, Nancy did include lines extending between South America and Africa. Nancy revealed that she felt that problems of North-South relations were critically important for the foreseeable future, and she felt that only through the mutual cooperation of southern states might the problems of southern poverty be overcome.

While the students were intrigued by the results rendered by American students, it was not until the discussion of the drawings created by the foreign students that the idea of alternative narratives was truly considered credible. The foreign students, inevitably, created radically different drawings from the Americans. They tended to be far more geographically inclusive and invariably included non-industrialized areas that Americans tended to neglect. To be sure, the ethnocentric undertones that I am clearly implying are not the sole province of Americans. Usually, the native country of the foreign students played far more prominent a role in the drawing than did other states.

For instance, "Jae," a Korean student in political science, rendered a large drawing of the Korean peninsula with Japan, China, and the "U.S.S.R." located on the periphery. Prominently displayed in the drawing was a large line drawn through the Peninsula between the North and South. Jae's explanation of the drawing related his concern for the divisions within his country and their importance for the whole region.

"Reginald," a Liberian student, drew detailed drawings of the African continent, including Madagascar and the Arabian Peninsula. On the periphery were far less detailed drawings of the United States, Europe, and Asia. Reginald stated his concern for his homeland and his concern over its relative lack of importance to western societies.

"Pamela," an African-American student, drew a large African continent labeled "Alkebulan." On the periphery, in a proportionately smaller size, was the United States. Egypt as a state was singled out and labeled, and a large circle was drawn to represent Europe. Pamela said she felt strong ties to her "African homeland," and she very much wanted to help "heal the pain" heaped upon Africans both in the United States and the African continent itself.

It would be disingenuous to suggest that all the drawings were neatly packaged along societal and geographic boundaries. In fact, the most interesting drawings were those created by students who abandoned conventional understandings of the "world." By this I mean that they chose to render a drawing that did not contain continents or other map renderings. They tended to be very free form and expressive of personal feelings. These drawings, perhaps, did the most to convince students of their differing ontological presuppositions. They defy generalization so I shall simply explain a few of the most prominent sketches.

"Pavel," a Ukrainian political science student, drew an x-y axis with a sine wave passing through it. Pavel suggested that he hoped Science might be used to assist his country's development. Pavel had graduated from law school prior to coming to the United States for graduate study.

"Mariko," a Japanese student, produced a drawing which she suggested revealed the "dialectic of Japanese life." The drawing included a pastoral scene with a skyline, a tree, and Mount Fuji in the background. This scene was juxtaposed against a large skyscraper that dominated the rest of the rendering. She felt that this struggle between modernity and ancient tradition was a prominent feature in Japanese society.

"Sherri," an American student, depicted animals and humans playing together in a field. She said that the relationship between man and nature was important, and she felt that it was critical that man learn to "live better with nature."

"Sasha," a student from the Russian republic, drew the globe as a large apple with an arrow though it. Sasha's comment on the drawing suggested that he felt that the "world was in it together." While "Stacy," an American student, drew a circle with people in it. The people were all holding hands but some were crying while other smiled. She felt this represented the inequities of the world today. "Trevor," a white American, drew a picture of people, a church, a book, a television, and a government building. He felt that it was community that was important, and he drew the things that represented community.

"Nabeel," a palestinian student, provides the most striking example. Nabeel's ragged drawing in green marker (he requested the color) depicted two individuals fighting and a hail of gunfire in between the two. The drawing itself seemed clear to me, but I was puzzled by Nabeel's request for a specific colored marker. He stated that the drawing represented the "present," as he saw it, and the green represented the "future." He felt green symbolized a revitalization.

3.5 Analysis


A brief analysis of the drawings rendered by the students suggest a number of interesting conclusions. Nabeel's rendering of the palestinian struggle while intentionally using a color that signified hope to him suggests the conflicting narratives that the method seeks to explore. Nabeel, during discussion, expressed a certain degree of confusion between the narratives of peace offered by negotiators and those of armed struggle that he had grown up with. Similarly, Mariko's rendering clearly identified a societal conflict between narratives of modernity and those of tradition. She described the contrasting images of wealthy businessmen driving in their luxury cars to visit ancient Shinto shrines. The African-American student's rendering of "Alkebulan" reveals a conflict between African cultural narratives and those offered by mainstream white America in the schools and media that most citizens of African-American descent struggle with daily. Certainly, not all drawings indicated a conflict of narratives. Many of the drawings crated by Americans tended to be maps that placed a great emphasis on the United States and then neglect most other areas of the globe. Those other sites that were included were usually Europe and Japan. The ethnocentric implications that such drawings make seem clear.

Admittedly, the brief analysis provided here is superficial. I make no claims to providing accurate representations of deep structure. Yet, the drawings clearly expose the existence of multiple worlds and provide a powerful framework for the discussion of contextuality and its importance to international relations. Beyond that, I make no claims. Generally, I have found it safest to let the students make their own analyses of their drawings and then push them to reveal their own contexts.

4. Conclusion


The goal of the method presented above was to expose in a graphic format the narratives that students use to understand political events. In addition, by exploring the use of narratives the student should begin to develop a more contextualized understanding of world events. The results of the drawings to date seem to support the intended goal. After viewing Nabeel's drawing of palestinian suffering in the occupied territories and comparing it to American or European renderings the students were more accepting of the idea of contextuality. Moreover, follow up discussions indicated a new understanding of contextuality meant to their understanding of world events.

After considering drawings similar to Mariko's rendering of the conflict between tradition and modernity in Japanese life, students also became more aware of the conflicts inherent in the narratives with which they themselves viewed the world. Particularly striking was the comment of one student who pointed out differences and commonalities between White and African-American students. The student suggested that this difference in perspective might suggest alternative ways of understanding the same political events. She argued that whether one interpreted the Rodney King beating as either a civil rights issue or a law and order issue might depend heavily on the narratives used to understand the event. Pressed further, the student agreed that it would be of value to students of international relations to be aware of the importance of contextuality and marginalized voices when exploring international issues.

I began this paper with a pedagogical focus, assuming the suppositions of Ashley and Walker to be correct and then seeking to develop a teaching method that would support them. I would conclude by suggesting a number of thoughts for revision not all of which are pedagogical. Future applications of the teaching method will seek to broaden the base of respondents. I believe that the method holds promise for graduate students as well and beyond that perhaps other disciplines might find variants useful. Further, I would like to include choices of color. Nabeel's specific choice of green as a representation of hope suggests that allowing a choice of color might lead to more meaningful drawings. I actively encourage interested parties to explore different approaches to the administration of the method.

Finally, I hope to build of the pedagogical tool to make a more theoretical argument. I hope that a future reading of semeiotics might reveal strategies that would enable the use of the drawings as empirical evidence in support of Ashley and Walker's claims. Ultimately, this method is only one of many possible approaches that might be used to address the new complexity in global relations. My hope, beyond arguing for the value of my own method, is to suggest a need for the teaching of contextuality in general. What seems clear is a need to provide students with tools of understanding that apply to a broader spectrum of phenomena. The pace of change has not slowed and the great attention to detail we provide in our classrooms risks becoming old news as global society continues to shift. An understanding of the importance of context suggests the need for students to critically reflect on the events they witness and to hopefully develop a greater understanding of their own contexts.

Selected Bibliography

Alker, Hayward R., jr. and Thomas J. Biersteker. 1984. "The Dialectics of World Order: Notes to a Future Archaeologist of International Savoir-Faire," International Studies Quarterly, pp. 121-142.


Ashley, Richard K. and R.B.J. Walker. 1990a. "Reading Dissidence/Writing the Discipline: Crisis and the Question of Sovereignty in International Studies," Alternatives, pp. 367-416.


Ashley, Richard K. and R.B.J. Walker. 1990b "Speaking the Language of Exile: Dissident Thought in International Studies," International Studies Quarterly, pp. 259-268.


Ashley, Richard K. 1989. "Living on Border Lines: Man, Poststructuralism, and war," in James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro (eds.) International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington: Lexington Books).


Banks, Michael. 1986. "The International Relations Discipline: asset or Liability for Conflict Resolution," in Azar, E.E. and J.M. Burton (eds.) International Conflict Resolution (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers).


Biersteker, Thomas J. 1989. "Critical Reflections on Post-Positivism in International Relations," International Studies Quarterly, pp. 263-267.


Der Derian, James. 1989. "The Boundaries of Knowledge and Power in International Relations," in James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro (eds.) International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington: Lexington Books).


Foucault, Michel. 1978. The History of Sexuality: Volume I (New York: Vintage Books).


Foucault, Michel. 1977a. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972- 1977 (New York: Pantheon Books).


Foucault, Michel. 1977b. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books).


George, Jim and David Campbell. 1990. "Patterns of Dissent and the Celebration of Difference: Critical Social Theory and International Relations," International Studies Quarterly, pp. 269-293.


Lapid, Yosef. 1989. "The Third Debate: On The Prospects of International Theory in a Post- Positivist Era," International Studies Quarterly, pp. 235-254.


Lapid, Yosef. 1989. "Quo Vadis International Relations? Further Reflections on the `Next Stage' of International Theory," Millenium, pp. 77-88.


Shapiro, Michel J. 1989. "Textualizing Global Politics," in James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro (eds.) International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington: Lexington Books).


NOTES



1. In fact, a satisfying, if not uncomfortable, side effect of the exercise has been increased challenges to the assumptions implicit in my own lectures.

2 . I have changed all of the following names for the sake of anonymity.

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